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'''Tacit programming''', also called '''[[wikipedia:Tacit_programming|point-free style]]''', refers to usage of tacit [[function]]s that are defined in terms of implicit [[argument]]s. This is in contrast to the explicit use of arguments in [[dfn]]s (<source inline lang=apl>⍺ ⍵</source>) and [[tradfn]]s (which have named arguments). Some APL dialects allow to combine functions into [[#trains|trains]] following a small set of rules. This allows creating complex [[derived function]]s without specifying any arguments explicitly.
'''Tacit programming''', also called '''[[wikipedia:Tacit_programming|point-free style]]''', refers to usage of tacit [[function]]s that are defined in terms of implicit [[argument]]s. This is in contrast to the explicit use of arguments in [[dfn]]s (<source inline lang=apl>⍺ ⍵</source>) and [[tradfn]]s (which have named arguments). Some APL dialects allow to combine functions into [[train]]s following a small set of rules. This allows creating complex [[derived function]]s without specifying any arguments explicitly.


Dialects which implement trains include [[Dyalog APL]], [[dzaima/APL]], [[ngn/apl]] and [[NARS2000]].
Dialects which implement trains include [[Dyalog APL]], [[dzaima/APL]], [[ngn/apl]] and [[NARS2000]].
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== Trains ==
== Trains ==
A train is a series of functions in isolation. An isolated function is either surrounded by parentheses or named. Below, <source lang=apl inline>⍺</source> and <source lang=apl inline>⍵</source> refer to the arguments of the train. <source lang=apl inline>f</source>, <source lang=apl inline>g</source>, and <source lang=apl inline>h</source> are functions (which themselves can be tacit or not), and <source lang=apl inline>A</source> is an array. The arguments are processed by the following rules:
A [[train]] is a series of functions in isolation. An isolated function is either surrounded by parentheses or named.


=== 3-trains ===
These rules are used for 3-trains:
A 3-train is a ''fork'', so denoted because its structure resembles a three-tines fork, or a three-pronged pitchfork. The two outer functions are applied first, and their results are used as arguments to the middle function:
{|
{|
|<source lang=apl>  (f g h) ⍵</source>|| {{←→}} ||<source lang=apl>(  f ⍵) g (  h ⍵)</source>
|<source lang=apl>  (f g h) ⍵</source>|| {{←→}} ||<source lang=apl>(  f ⍵) g (  h ⍵)</source>
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|}
|}


=== 2-trains ===
In APL (but not [[J]]), these rules are used for 2-trains:
Most dialects define a 2-train is an ''atop'', equivalent to the function derived using the [[Atop (operator)|Atop]] operator. The left function is applied [[monadic function|monadically]] on the result of the right function:
{|
{|
|<source lang=apl>  (g h) ⍵</source>|| {{←→}} ||<source lang=apl>g (  h ⍵)</source>
|<source lang=apl>  (g h) ⍵</source>|| {{←→}} ||<source lang=apl>g (  h ⍵)</source>
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|<source lang=apl>⍺ (g h) ⍵</source>|| {{←→}} ||<source lang=apl>g (⍺ h ⍵)</source>
|<source lang=apl>⍺ (g h) ⍵</source>|| {{←→}} ||<source lang=apl>g (⍺ h ⍵)</source>
|}
|}
Only [[dzaima/APL]] allows <source lang=apl inline>(A h)</source>, which it treats as <source lang=apl inline>A∘h</source>.<ref>dzaima/APL: [https://github.com/dzaima/APL/blob/ceea05e25687988ed0980a4abf4b9249b736543f/docs/differences.txt#L19 Differences from Dyalog APL]. Retrieved 09 Jan 2020.</ref> See [[Bind]].
[[J]] instead defines the 2-train as a [[hook]], equivalent to the function derived using the [[Withe]] operator. The left function is always applied [[dyadic function|dyadically]], taking as right argument, the result of applying the right function on the right argument. If there is no left argument, the sole argument is used also as left argument:
{|
|<source lang=apl>  (g h) ⍵</source>|| {{←→}} ||<source lang=apl>⍵ g (h ⍵)</source>
|-
|<source lang=apl>⍺ (g h) ⍵</source>|| {{←→}} ||<source lang=apl>⍺ g (h ⍵)</source>
|}
=== Problems caused by function-operator overloading ===
Trains that use a [[Function-operator_overloading|hybrid function-operator]] in its [[function]] role can run into the problems with the hybrid being parsed as a monadic [[operator]] instead of as a function. This happens when a function appears to the immediate left of the hybrid, causing this function to be bound as the hybrid's operand — the hybrid taking on an operator role — rather than supplying a left [[argument]] or post-processing the result.
For example, the attempted [[#3-trains|fork]] <source lang=apl inline>f/h</source> is actually parsed as the [[#2-trains|atop]] <source lang=apl inline>(f/)h</source> and the attempted atop <source lang=apl inline>f/</source> is actually parsed as a [[Windowed Reduce|Windowed Reduction]]. There are multiple [[Function-operator_overloading#Mitigation|ways to mitigate this issue]]. For example, the fork can be enforced using the [[Atop (operator)|Atop operator]] by applying identity to the hybrid's result as <source lang=apl inline>f⊢⍤/h</source> and the atop can be enforced by using the explicit Atop operator instead of a 2-train; <source lang=apl inline>f⍤/</source>.
No problem presents when left argument is supplied as an array (literal or by name reference) and when the hybrid is the leftmost token. For example, <source lang=apl inline>1 0 1/⌽</source> and <source lang=apl inline>/,⊃</source> are parsed as forks.


== Debugging ==
== Debugging ==
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</source>
</source>


=== Conversion to dfns ===
It can help understanding to convert a tacit function to a dfn. For many tacit functions, it is not immediately clear if the intention of the function is to be used monadically or dyadically, or even both. Such knowledge can be conveyed by comments, but sometimes it is possible to spot patterns that are exclusively monadic or dyadic: A function with a bound argument (for example <source lang=apl inline>+∘1</source>) can indicate a monadic function, and in some contexts, <source lang=apl inline>=</source>, which can only be used dyadically, would indicate a monadic function. The website [https://tacit.help tacit.help] provides automated translation of most tacit functions, into both monadic and dyadic, fully parenthesised dfns.
== Examples ==
== Examples ==
One of the major benefits of tacit programming is the ability to convey a short, well-defined idea as an isolated expression. This aids both human readability ([[semantic density]]) and the computer's ability to interpret code, potentially executing special code for particular [[idiom]]s.
One of the major benefits of tacit programming is the ability to convey a short, well-defined idea as an isolated expression. This aids both human readability ([[semantic density]]) and the computer's ability to interpret code, potentially executing special code for particular [[idiom]]s.
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* [[Dyalog '13]]: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7-93GzDqC08 Train Spotting in Version 14.0]
* [[Dyalog '13]]: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7-93GzDqC08 Train Spotting in Version 14.0]
</div>
</div>
=== Documentation ===
* [https://help.dyalog.com/16.0/Content/RelNotes14.0/Function%20Trains.htm Announcement]
* [https://help.dyalog.com/latest/Content/Language/Introduction/Trains.htm Dyalog]


== References ==
== References ==
Retrieved from ‘https://aplwiki.com/wiki/Special:MobileDiff/8743...8922’

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